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INDEX
.

Page

Statement of Related Cases . . . . . . ; . . '.' ... . . . . vil

Opinions below . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . . 1

Issues presented .. . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of the case .................... 2

A Introduction ;.................. 2 B. Proceedigs below ............~... 3 Statement off acts ..............;........ 5
A The nuclear testig progr ........;.. 5
B. The United Nations trsteeship agreement . . 6

C. The Compact of Free Association ..... ~ . 8
D. The Section 177 agreement. . . . . . . . . . . 9
E. Approval of

the Compact by the N.ff_11 Is~______ _ -lanâS and-United States .. . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Sumar of arguent . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . 12

Arent:
. 1. A chalenge to settement term negotiated as

an integral par of diplomatic recognition

justiciable politica question . . . 14 A These appeal chalenge foreign policy
raiers a non

decions that aae beyond the scope of..

the judiciar. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 16
B. Foreign policy decisions as to diplomatic
recogntion and clai settement are

commtted t~ the politica branches .... 16

C.. To grant the relief sought in these caes
. would dimantle the settement, create

interntional uncertainty as to the Marsha Islands' authority to conduct

sovereign acts, and underme United
. States foreign policy . . . . . .. . . . . . 23

II. The withdrawal of the United States' consent

to suit does not dependón judicial approval of Mahal Islands espousal .......... 26

.
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A Section 103(g) on its face does hot condi"
tion Aricle XI on

judicial review of
27

espousal' . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . '. .'
B.' Congress rejected the very proviion appellants ask ths Cour to add to the Com,:

pact Act . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . .'. . . .
m. The'Compacts clai settlement meets Fifh
Amendment requements ...........'
A The clai settlement creates a comprehen-

29

32

sive, perment mean of resolvig al . p~ present and futue nuclear testig ,

claa .... .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33 38

B. Congress, in ratig the Compact, proper'Iy withdrew Tucker Act consent, to sut .

C. The Secton 177 agreement provides' an al-

ternative method òf compensation , -wIDell mmit De ãlowea to operate as in::~
, , tended to address al clai ......;.

43

IV. The Republic of the Marhal Islands has
, valdly espoused and settled its

national'clai . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . .
A The esousal meets requements of the "
rue of contiuous nationaty ......

46

46 50
53 55 61

B. Trut terrtoiy residents are not United
States citiens ...............

C. The UIIted States breached no fiduciar , relationship . . . . . .,. . " . . . . . . . .
V. Citiens of the Marhau Islands Qlay not invoke
the jUst compensation clause '. . . . . . . . . .

!'

'Conclusion ..........'................'. '
Certifcate of service . . .'. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .

62 ,,

.l

CIATIONS
Cases:
Aradanas v. Hogan, 155 F.Supp. 546 . . . . . . . . . . 52

Amecan Ins. Co. v. Canter, 26 U.S. (1 Pet) 511 41
ii

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Ampex Corp. v. United States, 620 F.2d 853 .... '. .

31

Antolok v. Brookhaven Natinal Laboratories, No. CV

822364 (Antolokll ...... '. .' . . . . . . . .
,
,\~ t~ r: "

, passim
, 15,21

" Antolok v. United States, No. 852471 (Antolok 1) . . .

Baker v. CarT, 369 U.S. 211 ...............
Baliac v. Puerto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 . . . . . . . . . . .

, passim

59
41

Battaglia v. General Mortors Corp., 169 F.2d 254, cert.
denied 335 U.S. 887 ................

"

Blanchette v. Connecticut Generaiini. Corp., 419 U.S.

102 . .'. . .'. . '. . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Callas v. United States, 253 F.2d 838, cert. denied, 357

43,44
52
60

U.S. 936 . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . .
Cardenas'v. Smith, 733 F.2d 909 ...,.........

Cherokee Natin v. Georg, 5 Pet. 1 ',' . . . . . . ; .
Cherokee Nation v,-~u,thern_IQnsds R._fo.,--5 U.S.__
-------.----o41--~----- .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . ....,.,. .

54

-------43
16

Chicago &SouthernAir Lins, Inc. v. Watenntln Steam~
shp Corp., 333 U.S.

103 " .. . . '. . . . . . . .

Commonwealth o/the Northern Mariana Island v.
Atalig, 723 F.2d 682 cert. denied, 476

U.S.-1244 ..'....................
Dames & Moore v. Regan, 453 lJ.S. 654 ........
Dickey v. Greene, 729 F.2d 957 . . . . .. . .. .. . .
Do" v. United States, 195 V.S! 138 . . . . . . . . . . .

59

passim
37

,59
59 41 42 60 52, 56
31 31 40

Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 ............
Ex Parte McCardle, 74 U.S.

(7 Wal.) 506 .......

Firt English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. County
of Los Angeles, 107 S.Cl 2378 . " . . . . . . . .
Fleming v. United States" 352 F.2d 533 . . . . . . .. .

Gale v.Andru, 643 F.2d 826 ..............
Gemsco v. WallZ1g, 324 U.S. 24 ....,....... , .

General Electrc. Co. v. United States, 610 F.2d 730 .

Gibbes v"Zimmermn, 290 U.S. 326 . . . . . . . . . '. Gold Bondholders Protective Council v. United States,
676 F.2d 643, cert. denied 459 U.S. -968

passim

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Goldwa,ter v: Carter, 44 U.S. 996 ........... 16
Guarant Trut Co. v. United States, 304 U.S.

. . . . . . . . .". . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
Hammond v. United States, 786 F.2d 8 . . . . . . . . .

126

18,21
36 17 53

Hariiade v. Shaughnessy; 342 U.S. 580 . . . ',' . . .
Hughes Aircraft Co. v. United States; 534 F.2d 889 ..
In reAicrash in Bali, Indonesia on April

22, 1974,684

F.2d 1301' ; . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . '.
In re GHB Ener Corp., 791 F.2d 1200 .........

60 37

Interational Medical Prstheti Reearch Assocites,
Inc. v. GOre Enterrie Holdin'gInc., 787 F.2d

572 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . II " l ", ~ .... . . I'
Johnson v. Eisentrager,339 U.S. 763 .........-.
Judav. United States, 6 a. Ct 441 . . . . . . . . . . .

, ,

15 17

1,3
__pas~IIn
53
-------

uKabua, Kabua v. United States, 546 F.2d 381, cert.
Langenegger v. United States, 756 F.2d 1565, cert
denied,

Judo, v. United States., 13 CI. Ct. 667 ... " " . . . . .

'. denied, 434 U.S. 821 . .. . . . . . ~. . . . . ...

474 U.S. 824 . ; . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . 22

Lynch v. United States, 292 U.S. 571 ..'....:.. 38~39,40,46

Marbury v. Madiso1Î, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 . . . .'. . 16

Maricopa County v. Valley National Bank of Phoenix, 318 U.S. 357 .....................

40

McCamish v. Commissione of Internal Revenue, 580

F.2d 1323 ... '. . . . . .'. . . . '. . . . . .' . . ,
Montana v. Blackfeet Tribe of Indians, 471 U.S. 759 .
" Mtol v. United States, 7 Cl. Ct. 405 . . . . .'. . . . . '.

52 54 4

'-

Mtol v. United States, 13 a. Ct. 690 .......... pasSim

NQrthern Pipelie Co. y. Marathon Pipe Line 'Co., 458
U.S.

50 . . . '. . . . . . . . '. . . . . . . . . . .,. .

Ozanic v. United States, 188 F.2d 228 .........

40 20

Peter v. United States, 6 a.ct. 768 .. . . . . . . . .. passim

Peter v,, United States, 13 a. Ct. 691 .......... 1,3

Porter y. United States, 496 F.2d 583, cert denied, 420

U.S. 1004 .........,........... passim
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Ramirez ii. Weinbetger, 745 F.2d 1500, vacated on

other grounds sub nom Weinberer v. Ramirez,

471 U.S. 1113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
RuckeIshaus v. Monsanto, 467 U.S. 989 . . . . .' . " 36,43,44,45
Seery v. United States, 127 F. Supp~ 601 '. . . . . . . . 60 Schilinger v. United States, 155 U.S. 163 . . . . . . . . 40

Shânghai Power Co. v. United States, 4 Ct. CL. 237,
, afd without opinon, 765 F.2d159 (Fed. Ci.),
cert. denied, 474 U.S. 909 . . . . . . . . . . . .. passim

Shelton v. Sill, 49 U.S. (8 How.) 440 ..'........ 41
L

Tumeyv. United States, 115 F. Supp. 457 ....... 60
United States v.Belmnt,

. (Ì'

l "

301 U.S. 324 .. . . . .'. :. passim

United States v. Curts/Wright Corp., 299 U.S. 304" . . 20

United States v. James, 106 S.Ct. 3116 .......'.. '. 31

---------------

-- -'- --United-States-v.-K1ein,-80-U.S.-Ç13'Wal.)-128-.-~.m.~.--~----41-- ,
United States v. 'Pink, 315 U.S. 203 ...... ~ . . .. p'!ssim

___________n._._ ------------ --

United States v. Sioux Natin of Indians, 448

U.S. 371 . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 '

, United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, '601 F.2d 1151 38
Webb's Fabulous Pharmcies, Inc. v. Beckwth, 449

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U.S.155 . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . 36
Webste7v. Doe, S.Ct. No. 86-1294 ..........; 41

Statutes:
Atomic Energy Act of 1946, Pub. L. 79585, Ch. 724,'
60 Stat. 755 et seq. .................
5

Compact of Free Association Act of 1985, Pub. L. No.
99239, 99 Stat. 1770 ...............

passim
21

Federal Tort Clai Act . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . ~ .
Fisherman's Protectie Act, 22 U.,S.C.1971 . . . . . .
Magnuson Act,

16 US.C. 1801 . . '. ... . , . . . . . .

National Secuty Act, 61 Stat. 498, Section 102 Nitijela Res. No.

(c) .

62 N.D.2 ..........'.....

54 54 , 41 32

Trusteeship Ageement for the Former Japanese Mandated Islands, 61 Stat. 3301, T.IAS. No.

1~65 (1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v

6

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Tucker Act, 28 U.S.C.1491(a) .............

United Nations Charer . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
United States Constitution, 5th Amendment . . . . .
Vienna Convention 'on Consuar Relations, Arcle 8,

passim passim passim
54
41

ii UST 77, TI No. 6820, 596 UNS 261 . . .

28 V.S.C.172 . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . . .
28 V.S.C. 1502 .............'.........

, 48 U.S.C. 1681 . '. . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . '
48 U.S.C. 1681n. ..............;.......,
48 U.S.C. 1682-1687 .. . ~ . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .

passim
, 58,

7
58'

Convenant to Establih a Commonwealth of the

Nortern Marana Isands in Political Union . with the United States of America,Ptb. L. No.
94241, 90 Stat. 263 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,

7

: Miscellaneous:
, 131 Congo Rec. E3588 (July 29, 1985) . . . , . '. . . .

~, i

27
31 23 31 31
;

, 131 Cong. Rec. H11836 (Dec. 11, 1985) . . . . . . . .

13l Congo Rec. H11838 (Dee.U, 1985) .. . :. . . .
131 Congo Rec. S17651 (Dee.

13, 1985) ..'......

\

, 132 Cop.g. Rec. E66E67, Jan. 23, 1986 ~ . .. . .. . .

S. Rep. No. 275, 97th Cong., 1st Ses. 7 (1981),
reprited in 1982 U.S. Code Congo & Ad.

News 11 '. . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. . . .
Secretaral Order No. 2876, 29 Fed. Reg.l8SS .,.. .'

41

Secretaral Order No; 2918, 34 Fed Reg. 157 ....

7 7

Secondary Authorities:

Hi, Compact of Free Ao;sociation for Micronesia: Constitutional and International Law Issues, 18 ' IIt'l Law 583 .........,........... 24
Cowen, The United States Court 01

Claim: A

History, Section One 1855-1887, 216 Ct.Cl. 1

(1978) .... .'. .'. . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Crawford, The Creation 01 States in International Law
,at 26-27 (1970) ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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1

,',' ",

, D. O'Connell, 2 International Law 1120,
(2d ed. 1970) .........'..........'.
, 1. Browne, Priples of Public International Law,
481-482 (3rd ed. 1979). . . . . . . . . . . , . . .

49

46,48
49

1.G. Schwarenberger, lntemational Law 592595 (3rd

ed. 1957) .....;.. '. . . . . .'. . . . . . . .

Kelso, Espousal: Its Use in IttternationalLaw, 1 Ar. J. of Internatl and Comp. i-w 233 (1982) ... L. Henk, Forei~ Afairs and the Constitution 262

46 46
49

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", ~~

l

(1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . " . . . . ,,' ,
8 M. Whtema Digest of International Law

1233 ...;........... '. ;.' . . . . . . .
terch an..

at ,

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McDouga and La, Treaties and Coiigresional'Executive and Presidential Agreements: rn ieable Instrments of

National P011cc. 54 Yale'

_____ LJ--1945) 181 . ~_'-'-''-'_---'~'_'_m _i7_,-

P. Bator, P. Mihk, D. Shtlpiro &H. Wechsler, The
Federal Cours and the Federal System 382 (2d eel

1973) .....;.................. 42
1 R. Lilch and B. Weston, Intemational Claim: Their Settlement by Lump Sum Ageements

(1975) ......'....... '. . .. . . . . . ; . . 49

116 Rècueil des Cow's, 181 (1965) ........... 48 Restatement (Second)'of the Foreign Relations Law

of the United States § 94(1), ât 303 (1965) 18

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"STATENT OF RELATE CASES
Pror appeals. No other appeal in or from the same civil ac- '
tion or proceedigs in the Clai Court have previously been before this Court or ~y other appellate cour. '

Related cases. By order dated March 28, 1988, ,thi Cour

consolidated three appeal from fi judgments isued by the Clai Cour on November 12; 1987, disming plaiti' com- '
plaits. See Order, March 28,1988, consolidating

People ofBikki

v. United States, No.-88-1206; NitoL et aL v. United States, No. 88-

'1207; and People of Enewetak v. United States~ No. 88-1208. The

Umted States fies thi consolidated brief purant to the Cour's
order.
Related appeal are curently pendig in the Ninth Circut and Distrct of Columbia Circuit addresing issues identica to those raised by the intant appeal. Cathelina Ant%k v. Brook-

_hall~1'i-NatiQl1aLLabocatories~9th_Ci.No.88~51A9;_CathelinAn_,__

tolok v. Unitd States, D.C. Cir. No. 87-53~4. The ditrct cour , deciions in those caes are found in the Joint Appendi at 14061421 and 1322-1330, ,respectvely. Most plaiti in the Nitol apI , ,

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Antolok actions. The openig brief in the Distrct of Columbia CicutAntolok appeai is due in Oc- , tober. The Nmth Cicut has stayed proceedigg p~ndig the Dis, trct of Columbia Circuts decision.
peal are alo plati in the

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TH United States Court Of Appeals
IN

FOR TH FEDERA CICU
Nos. 88-1206, -1207, ~1208

PEOPLE OF BIK ENEWETAK RONGELA, UT and OTHR MASHAL ISLAS ATOLLS,
Plaintiffs-Appe/lants
v.

TH UND STATE
Def(mdant-Appe/lee

--------

-;-------Honorable-Kenneth-R.Harkis--------..
CONSOLIATED BRI OF APPEL.

ON APPEA FROM TH UND STATES CLS COURT

------ --- ------------------

TH UND STATES

, OPINONS BELOW

The opinons of the Clai Cour are reported at Judiz v.
United States, 13 a. Ct 667 (1987), alo in the Joint Appendix at page 1 ("App. 1"); Nitol v. United States, 13 a. Ct. 690 (1987) (APt
27); andPeterv. United States, 13 Cl. Ct. 691 (1987) (App. 25).

iSSUES PRESENTED
I i I

1. Whether a chalenge to clai settlement proviions

negotiated between the United States and Republic of the Marshal ISlands as an

i

'integral par of a Compact of Free Association,

¡

establishing formal diplomatic relationS and treaty obligations be1 TheJuda appea is doceted ~ th Cour as People of Bikni v. United States,

No. 88-1206; the Nitol appeal as Limjwa Nitol, et aL v. United States, No. 881207; and the Peter appeal as People of Enewetak ii. United States, No. 88-1208.

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question. , .
and conCuent withdrwal of federal court

tween those. governents, presents a non-justiciable political

2. Whether the Oaim Cour correctly held that Congress,
in ratifg the Compact, did not condition the clai settlement
juridiction on a deter-

mination by United.States cour that the Republic of the Marshal Islands valdly espoused and settled its citiens' clai.

3. Whether the Claims Court correctly held that the Compact's settlement strctue, providig.a $150 mion compen, sation program" includig a clai trbunal, meets the require-

ments of the FIf Amendment's Just Compensation Oause.
4. Whether the Republic of the Marhal Islands prop~rly

exercised its sovereign right under international law to esouse
and settle the clai of its national.
5. Whether the Fif Amendments just ----- ------

.-Glause-e~ends-te-eitins-of-the-MaaII-Islads-for.'claiedtakigs while the Mar Islands were admtered by the'
, United States under a United NationsTruteespAgreement.

compensation

'. STATENT OF TH CASE
A. Introduction
These actions contest clai settlement provisions of the
Compact of Free Asociation (the "Compact"), an

'international,
com- '

agreement negotiated between the United States and the
R~public of the Marhal Islands (''Marshal Islands;') to

prehensivelý defie ~he diplomatic relations between the two
governments. The

Compact, approved by Marhal Islands

citizens and by the United $tates Congress, establishes a relationship of "free association." By its term, the United States recog-

nizes that the peoples of the Marhall Islands are self-governg,
and the Compact explicitly defies the governental, economic,
and security

and defense reiations between the tWo sovereign.

As an integral par' of thi agreement, the United States "accepts the responsibilty for compensation owig to citizens of the

Marhall Islands" for loss or damage resulting rrorn the nuclear
testig program which the United States conducted in the Northern Marshal Islands from June 30, 1946, to August 18, 1958 (App.
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869); The Compact, and related "Section 177 Agreement," estab-

.,

lish a comprehensive compensation plan, includig a trbunal to
adjudicate clai, and obligate the United States to establih a

"..,,- .

. .-.;:...::.~.. . ....

$150 mion fud to provide "in perpetuity, a mean to address
past, present and future consequences of the Nuclear Testing

Program" (App. 332). The agreement, in tu, provides that,
United States cours shal have no jurdiction t9 entertai such

clai (App. 343). It is th settement strctue which ischal- .

lenged on appeal. '
,B. Proceedings below.

These actions seek damges an behal of resdents of the
Marhal Islands for aleged tags of propert and breach of jm_ ,
plied:'in-fact contract duties said to result from the United

States

nuclear testig progr at Bik and Eneweta Atoll, which are

par of the 29 multi-island atoll and fie single islands compromiing the Marhal Islands. 13 a. Ct. at 668. Plaitis in Juda v.

. -Uiiitea-State:; ñleâtfieIr complait on March 16, 1981, on behal
of iiabitants of Bik Atoll. The Peter complait, fied on Sep-

..~L
" , i1

tember 15, 1982, is on behal of inabitats of Enewetak Atoll.
Twelve actons, consolidated under Linjwa Nitol v. United States,
were fied in 1981 and 1982 on behal of some of the inabitants

Ii

of Rc;mgelap and Utr and other areas in the Marhal Islands,

downwid from the test sites. ¡d. at 669. Al complaints 'assert

:I! " "

r

jurisdiction under the Tucker Act 28 U.S.C. 1491(a) (App. 110,

fl

194, 248). "
Prior to the

!.
I'
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Compact's approval, the United States fied mo-

tions to dimis the cpmplats in ai cases. The Qaim Court held,
plied contrct clai under the Tucker Act, which

. i:
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in 1984, that the Juda complait stated takg and breach of imwere not bared

by sovereign imunity or the statute of limtations. Juda v. United

,II
'/
II 'i

Statl!, 6 Q. Ct.441, 449-458 (0. Ct. 1984) (App. 37-46). The
court termed "substantial" the United States' arguent that the just compensation clause does not apply to residents of the Marshall Islands, but held thatthe Bil of Rights appJ,es to the United
States "wherever it has acted." ¡d. at 458 (App, 46).
In

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II

Peter, the cour found that the complait stated a claim for
statute of

breach of implied contract,but held that the

litations

:,

bared plaitif' takg clai. Peter v; United States, 6 Cl. Ct. 768, ,

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775,778 (a. Ct.1984) (App. 54, 57).2The cour dissed a thid
cause of action alegig a faiure to comply with the United Na-

tions Trusteeship Ageement, on the ground that 28 U.S.c. 1502

precludes aai Cour review of clai based on a treaty. Id. at '
778 (App. 57).3
The cour held in

Nitol that plaiti could matai a takig

clai but that the complait alleged incient facts to support
, an implied"in-fact contrct clai. Nitol v. United States, 7 Cl. Ct.

405, 415-416 (a. Ct. 1985) (App. 70-71). ,As in Peter, the coUr the Truteeship Agreement. Id.at 417 (App. 73). The cour alo reiterated its holdig in Juda as to the applicabilty of the just compensation clause. Id.
died a thd couut aIe~g a breach of

at 414-15 (App. 70-71).'

-- -

u .. - --..greemenCdivesteâ-theClãi COurt of)ufdiction.. 13 a. Ct.

Follo\Yg approval of the Compact, the United States moved to dimi on the grounds that the 'complaits raied nonjusticiable political questons, and the Compact and'Section 177
669-670 (App. 3-4). Followig arguent on Apri 23, 1987, the

cour asked for additional briefig on (1) whether the Çompact
'and Secton ,177 Agreement were in effec.t and operative, and (2)

whether Congress had withdrwn the consent of the United States
to be sued. 13 a. Ct. at 670 (App. 4). The cour heard additional arguent on those ises on August 28~ 1987.
The aai Cour held on November 10, 1987, that, under' the Compact and Section 177 Agreement, 'The consent of the

United States to be sued in the aai Cour on plaiti' takg clai and breach of contract clai that are from the United

States' nuclear testig program in the Marhal Islands has been
2 The Peter plaitif have fied a separte brief oil the'statute of litations
isue in the People of Eneetak appeal, pursuat to Separate Brief of

thi Courrs order. The
fied today,

Appellee the United States on tht question ha been

3 pIaiti do not chenge that holding on appeal. The' Qai a:~ simirly dismised a fourt

count, al not appealed, claimig thd par beneficiaiy

rights from a 1976 agreement between the United States and the Marhal Islands
Trost TerritoiyGovernent, 6 cc Ct, at 780 CA;pp, 59), .

4 The Nitol plaitis have not appealed frm dismial of their contract and
Truteesrup Agreement clais.

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withdrawn." 13 Cl. Ct.,at 690 CApp.24). The court entered fial
judgment in al actions on November 12,1987 CAppo 74-76).

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STATEMENT OF FACTS,
A. The nuclear testig progrm.
These

actions are from the United States' program to test
,

nuclear weapons in the,Marhal Islands from June 30, 1946, to August 18, 1958, conducted purant to statutory authority set
forth hi the Atomic Energy Act of 1946~ Pub. L. 79:-585, Ch. 724,

60 Stat. 755 et seq. The program included detonation of 23 atomic
and hydrogen bombs at Bik Atoll and 43 nuclear devices at Enewetak Atoll. 13 a. Ct at 668 (App. 2).' The testing rest~d in paral or complete vaporiation of several islands, severe physical damge to öthers, and radioactive contamation. ld. at 668-

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669 (App. 2-3). . .
..' .'.-------..TheinhabitantsofyarousatollwereremoY'edandreloCated..~--. --~----

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durig the testig program On March 7, 1946, the United States
Navy evacuated the 167 inabitants of Bik Atoll to Rongeri

Atoll, 150 mies east of Bik, prior to the fit series of tests,
known at Operation Crossoads (App. 121). In March 1948, the
Navy again moved the people of Bik to a temporar capsite

, on Kwajalein Atoll, and in September 1948 to the Island of Ki, 400 mies southeast of Bik (App. 123).
On August 12, 1968, President Johnsonannotmced that the

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major islands of Bik Atoll were safe for hum habitation, and approxiately 150 Bikans, out of a population that had grown
to some 400 people, bega to retu in 1969 and the early 1970's.

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6 CI. Ct. at 447 CAppo 35). Radiation tests in 1977 and 1978,
however, showed that, as a result of local foods, consumed in ad-

dition to foods supplied by the United States, the Biki settlers '
. ~"- .
,~/"~)~~.~:. . burdens of

experienced "an 'incredible' 1-year 75 percent increase in body radioactive cesium-137, causing U.S. scientists to con-

.clude that the people liely had ingested the largest amounts of
radiation of any known population." Ibid. As a result, the United

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States, in Augut 1978, relocated the 150 Bik settlers back to
Kii Island and Maruro Atoll. ld. at 448 CAppo 36). No one has
resided pennanently at Biki since that tie. Ibid.

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The Navy removed inabitants of

Ene

wet

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toll to Ujelang.

Atoll, i24 mies to,the southwest, in December 1947, prior to the commencement of Operation Sandstone, authoried by President Truan to develop a new series of nuclear weapons (App. 209). From 1972 to 1980, the United States conducted rehabiltation, at
a cost of some $100 millon, and in Apri

1980, the Enewetak

people retued to the Atoll for permanent resdence; 6 a. Ct.
'at 77) (App. 52).

Inabitants of thee atolls downwid from the Bik and
Enewetak tests, who are plaiti in the Nitol actions, were relU" cated for periods rangig from several months to thee year, in conjunction with specifc tests~ 7 Cl. Ct at 410-411 (App. 66-67).

B. The United Nations Truteeship AgemenL
-:'he diect politica relationship between the United States and the Marhal Islands trce to the end of World War II when

--------

_____the U--ted StatesJij)~ratedJh~--slan.ddr_QmJapan,_whichhad_ad~

mintered them under a League of Nations Mandate. 13 CL. Ct.
at 671 (App. S). United States mitar authorities governed the
Marshall Islands from that tie unti 1947, when the islands were

.,

brought with the United Nations trsteeship system. At that
time, the United States andUnited Nations Security Council ap-

proved a Trusteeship Agreement that designated the United States as "admisterig authority over the Pacic Islands of the

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Trust Terrtory~5. , ' ' " ' '
The agreement was approved by congressional resolution on

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for the Fonner Japanese Mandated Islands, 61 Stat. 3301, T.I.AS. No. 166~ (1947) (App.
July 18,1947. Truteeship Ageement

277).6 ' '
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The Trut Terrtoiy was compried of the Mmhal Islands, the Marna Isreferred to as Micronesia. 6 Cl. Ct.

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lands and the Calie Islands, and commonly

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at 44 CAppo 32).

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6 The Truteehip wa establihed puruant to Arcles 7S though 91 of the
UlÙted Nations Charer, which govern the International Truteeship System
(App,

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273-276). Arcle 76(b) obligates the admiterig authority "to promote

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the politica economic, soc and educationa advancement of the inabitants of the trut terrtories, and their progresve deveeopment towards self-government

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or independence · · ." (App. 273).

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The Truteeship Agreement grted the United States "fu
powers of admtration, legilation, and

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jurisdiction over the ter-

ritoiy," with dietion to apply "such of the laws of the UlÙted
States as it may deem appr~riate .to local ~onditi?ns andrequire-

ments" (Ar. 3, App. 278). Consistent with Aricle 76(b) of the United Nations Charer, and,subject to the specifc autl;orities set
forth in the Truteeslúp Agreement, Aricle 6 obligated the

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United States to promote the development of self-governe~t, , economic advancement and self-suciency (Ar. 6, App. 278). ' Durg the 1960's, the United States intiated steps, in accordance with Arcle 6; to prepare the Micronesian for constitutional self-governent, includig the formation in 1965 of a
Congress of

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Micronesia. 13 Cl. Ct. 672 (App. 6)., At that tie, the

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United States encouraged, and the Micronesian leaderS explored, ,

the possibilty of grtig commonwealth status for the varous island groups. Ibid. The Micronesians determed, however, of se~u ------forI four separate politiCã entities for fne âevelopment to

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governent, includig .the Republic of the Marshall Islands.
Ibid.9 The Marhal Islands approved a constitution, by referendum, on Marh 1, 1979, and began parliamentar constitutional
governent on May 1, 1979. 13 a. a. at 672 (App. 6, 310). On
7 Arcle 7 sped those "fdamental freedoms" which the admiterig ,

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authority must guartee, includig "frdom of consence, and, subject only to
the requiements of public order and sety, freedom of speec of thepIess,

and of asmbly frdom of worship, and of religious teachg; and freedom of
migration and movement" (App. 279).
a The President delented authority for ci admitration of the Trut Ter-

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ritoiy to the Secretar of the Interior, who vested executie authority in a High

Commisioner, appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the
Senate. Departent of the Interior Secetaal Order No. 2876, 29 Fed. Reg.

1855 (1964), superced by Secretaal Order No. 2918,34 Fed. Reg, 157 (1969)
CAppo 295).
~". 9 The other three politica entities included the Federated States of

(

Micronesia, the Republic of Palau, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marana Islands. 13 a. Ct. at 672 (App.6). The latter entered into a "Covenant to Establih a Commonwealth of the Nortern Maran IsladS in Politica Union with the United
States of America" approved by the United States on

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94-241,90 Stat 263 (1976) (codied as amended at 48 U.S.c. 1681 n.(1982)) (App. 289).

March 24,1976. Pub. L

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April 25, 1979, the Secretar of the Interior, on behal 'of the

United States, recogned the Republic of the Marhal Islands,
and delegated certai executive, legilatie and judicial functions,

referr~d to in Artcle 3 of the Truteeship Agreement, to the new constitutional governent, subject to retaied residual authority
for trsteeship compliance. 13 a. Ct. at 672 (App. 6).

C. The Compact of Free Association. Followig lengthy goverrent-tU"governent negotiations, the Republic of the Maral Islands and the United States signed
the Compact ofPree Association on June 25, 1983. The Compact , redefies the full bilateral relationship between the two governments, includig governenta relations (Title One, App. 858),

econo'mc relations (Title Two, App. 870), security and defense

, obligations (Title Three, App. '879), and dispute resolution,
amendient and termation procedures (Title Four, App. 884).

. ______ ___Most-ele'lanLto_th_appeaLis_TitIe,-Qne,_whicllmemorial- ,
izesthe politica relationship negotiated by the two governents. Title One recognes that the "peoples of the Marhal Islands," actig though the Governent establihed unc:er their Constitu- .

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tiOD, "are self-governg" '(App. 858). It al recognes that the ' , Marhal Islands "have the capacity to conduct foreign afai and

shal do so in theii own name and right, excpt aa otherwe
provided in th Compact" (App. 858). ''at authority

includes the

capacity "to enter into, in their own name and right, treaties and other international agreements with governents and regional
"

and international organations" (App. 858). Title One requies
consultation between the tWo governents on m~tteJ: of mutual

concern (App. 859), and provides for the exchange of diplomatic , representatives (App. 863). Title One's comprehensive restrcturig of politi. As par of
_ .- 'cal relations, Section 177(a) states CAppo 869): .

. The Governent of the United States accepts the
responsibilty for compensation owig to citizens of the Marshal Islands * · · for loss or damage to propert

and person * * * resulting from the nuclear testing

progr which the Governent of the United States

8